Think Again I: How to Understand Arguments
Due Oct 25, 1:59 PM +07
Final Quiz
ANSWER: False
Arguments can be polite and civil, so abuse is different from argument, as Monty Python shows.
ANSWER: TRUE
This follows from the definition of an argument that was explained in the lecture. The premises are some of the statements, sentences, or propositions in the argument. Statements and sentences are made up of language, and propositions are expressed in language.
ANSWER: True
This follows from the definition of an argument that was explained in the lecture.
ANSWER: False
How loud the argument is spoken cannot affect the truth of the premises or conclusion or whether the premises give a reason for the conclusion, so it cannot make an argument fallacious. It can, however, change the effectiveness of the argument and, hence, whether it succeeds in persuading its audience.
ANSWER: True
Every kind of explanation gives some kind reason why things happen, although that reason might be causal, teleological, formal, or material. Such explanatory reasons contrast with justificatory reasons to believe that something did happen.
ANSWER: True
Ludwig Wittgenstein made this point in his slogan was “Meaning is use.” This view shows how we can explain the meaning of words like “Hello” and “or” that do not refer to objects in the world.
ANSWER: True
Although sometimes the word “since” is not a premise marker, it still is a premise marker in other cases. This usage can be seen by substituting another premise marker (such as “because”) for the word “since.” If this substitution does not change the meaning of the sentence, then the word “since” is used as a premise marker in that sentence. Sometimes this substitution does not change the meaning of the sentence, as in “The number 51 is not prime, since it is divisible by 17”, which means the same as "The number 51 is not prime, because it is divisible by 17." Therefore, the word “since” is sometimes a premise marker.
ANSWER: FALSE
“Therefore” is a conclusion marker, because it comes before the conclusion (NOT a premise) of the argument.
ANSWER: False
Evaluative words contrast with pure expressions of emotion, such as “Boo” and Hurrah”, because we can ask why something (such as the Duke basketball team) is good, but it makes no sense to ask why “Hurrah for Duke.”
ANSWER: G = guarding
This sentence defines what a guarding term is. For example, if I say “Some of my friends are successful” instead of “All of my friends are successful”, then my claim is less vulnerable to potential criticisms and refutation, because the latter (“All …”) can be refuted, but the former (“Some …”) cannot be refuted, merely by pointing out one of my friends who is not successful. That is why the term “some” is a guarding term in this sentence.
ANSWER: A = assuring
When I assure you by saying “Obviously, it is the case” or “I assure you that it is the case,” I suggest that there is a reason to believe that it is the case, but I do not explicitly state that reason.
ANSWER: (iv) Its premises are true and its conclusion is false.
According to our technical definition of validity, an argument is valid if and only if it is NOT possible that its premises are true and its conclusion is false. However, this combination of truth values clearly IS possible if its premises in fact ARE true and its conclusion in fact IS false. Thus, an argument cannot ever be valid when its premises and conclusion have this combination of truth values. In contrast, a valid argument can have the other combinations of truth-values in the other answers.
ANSWER: V = an argument is valid but not sound
In order for this conclusion to be false, there would have to be an anthill at least as tall as the Taj Mahal. But then either that anthill would be at least as tall as Mount Kilimanjaro (in which case the second premise would be false) or that anthill would be shorter than Mount Kilimanjaro, in which case the Taj Mahal would also have to be shorter than Mount Kilimanjaro (so the first premise would be false). Either way, at least one premise is false whenever the conclusion is false. There is no possible situation in which both premises are true and the conclusion is false. Thus, the argument is valid. Nonetheless, the first premise is actually false, since the Taj Mahal is not taller than Mount Kilimanjaro. This is a commonly known fact. Hence, this argument is not sound.
ANSWER: A = an argument that is neither valid nor sound
This argument is not valid, because it is possible that he can lift 100 kilograms without being stronger than the Russian weightlifting champion, because it is possible the Russian weightlifting champion can lift more than 100 kilograms.
ANSWER: R = an argument marker
The term “so” is used here as an argument marker. We can know that it has this function because the meaning would not change significantly if we substituted another argument marker for “so”, as in this: “…in his hands painting became an exact science. THUS, if he paints two men rowing on a river, we can tell the month, day, and hour….” We could also say “…in his hands painting became an exact science, and BECAUSE OF THAT, if he paints two men rowing on a river, we can tell the month, day, and hour….” We can tell the day and hour BECAUSE he made his painting an exact science. Either way, the argument is “if he paints two men rowing on a river, we can tell the month, day, and hour…”, so the word “so” is an argument marker.
ANSWER: D = a discounting term
The term “but” discounts the objection that it is too early to talk about this serious issue. Many people do not like to talk about such heavy issues before they have their coffee in the morning.
ANSWER: E+ = a positive evaluative term
To be beautiful is to look good, so “beautiful” is an evaluative term.
ANSWER: N = none of the above
This term suggests a negative evaluation, especially with the tone of the paragraph. Nonetheless, the term “corporations” can be defined without reference to whether they are good or bad, so this term in itself is not essentially evaluative, even if this author happens to dislike large corporations. Thus, the term itself is not evaluative even if here the author uses it to suggest an evaluation.
ANSWER: D = discounting term
The term “however” is used here to discount the objection that all states set the drinking age at 21 because they carefully considered alternatives and agree that 21 is the right age. To counter that possible objection, the author says (after “however”) that the states set the age at 21 only because the federal government forces them to do so by threatening to withdraw federal highway funds if the states do not set the drinking age at 21.
ANSWER: P = premise marker
The word “because” is used here as a premise marker. We can know that it has this function because the meaning would not change significantly if we substituted another premise marker for “because”, as in “Since the planet has a relatively benign environment….” The relatively benign environment is the reason why “it is theoretically able to support a permanent human presence.”
ANSWER: G = guarding term
The author might say that astronauts definitely would live on Mars for years, but then opponents could object that he does not know how long they would live. The author avoids that objection by weakening his claim so all he says is that astronauts have SOME chance of living on Mars for years. The term “some” thus protects this claim against potential objections, which makes it function as guarding. (Compare the guarding term "theoretically able" in the preceding sentence.)
ANSWER: C = a conclusion marker
This term indicates that the conclusion of this whole argument is that you should have a cup of Equal Exchange Coffee.
ANSWER: A = assuring term
The term “Obviously” is a classic assuring term, because it indicates that there is some reason for the claim that is said to be obvious without openly saying what that reason is.
ANSWER: E- = a negative evaluative term
To be lousy is to be bad in some way.
ANSWER: P = a premise marker
You can tell that “for” a premise marker, because the meaning of the sentence does not change significantly if you substitute another premise marker, such as “because.” Here the term “for” indicates that the pride taken by Equal Exchange Coffee company is a reason why your decision to buy Equal Exchange need not be completely altruistic.
ANSWER: A = assuring term
The term “certainly” is a classic assuring term, because it indicates that there is some reason for the claim that is said to be obvious without openly saying what that reason is. To say “The astronauts lives would certainly be shortened” is to say we are certain that this will happen, and we could not be certain of this without some reason.
ANSWER: Jellyfish do not have feathers.
This suppressed premise makes the argument valid. None of the other answers makes the argument valid.
ANSWER: (iii) Joe is a farmer.
This answer is the only one that makes the argument valid. The answers that are about what farmers raise are irrelevant to what they eat. The answer that Joe is not a farmer leaves open the possibility that everybody who is a farmer likes steak, even if Joe does not like steak.
ANSWER: (iii)
Reconstruction (i) can’t be the best, because its premise does not give any reason for its conclusion. The rational order is reversed. Reconstruction (ii) is inferior, because it is not valid, so it needs a suppressed premise that will make it valid. Reconstruction (iv) is defective, because the suppressed premise is about what is best and the conclusion is about what is prized, so this argument is also not valid. Reconstruction (iii) is the best, because it is valid and makes sense of the argument.
ANSWER: (ii)
Reconstruction (i) merely repeats the sentences in the argument without adding needed suppressed premises, so that argument is not valid. Reconstruction (iii) does add suppressed premises, but the sub-arguments are still not valid. The best reconstruction (which is the correct answer) avoids both of these flaws.
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